Northern Wei Becomes Master of the North

Tuoba Tao had defeated Rouran and broken Xia. Northern Wei was close to becoming the new master of the north.

Two barriers still remained. In the east stood Northern Yan. In the west stood Northern Liang.

Northern Yan Comes From Later Yan's Ruins

Northern Yan carried the name Yan because it still grew out of the Murong world.

In the final years of Later Yan, Murong Xi ruled brutally. Feng Ba, a Han Chinese military figure, launched a coup, killed Murong Xi, and raised Murong Yun, the adopted son of Murong Bao, as Heavenly King.

Because Feng Ba had installed him, Feng Ba held real power.

Murong Yun never felt secure. He knew he was not a direct Murong heir, and the throne felt unstable beneath him. He constantly feared that someone would seize power from him.

To protect himself, he chose many trusted guards to stay close at all times, even when he went to the toilet. In the end, the men who killed him were Li Ban and Tao Ren, guards he trusted most.

In 409, Li Ban and Tao Ren assassinated Murong Yun. Feng Ba put down the coup, killed the assassins, and then took the throne himself.

Feng Ba Holds Northern Yan

Feng Ba ruled better than Murong Yun.

He abolished harsh taxes, disciplined officials, and maintained contact with Rouran and Eastern Jin. Northern Yan remained stable for more than twenty years.

It also developed toward the southeast and built close ties with Goguryeo, at times drawing Goguryeo into its influence.

If this had continued, Northern Yan might not have unified the north, but it could have held Liaoxi and Helong. The problem was succession.

In 430, Feng Ba became seriously ill. He asked Crown Prince Feng Yi to supervise the state and prepare the transfer of power.

Feng Ba's favored consort Lady Song wanted her own young son to succeed. She told Feng Yi that the emperor was recovering and asked how he could hurry to replace him.

Feng Yi was gentle and withdrew to the Eastern Palace. He only visited his father each day.

Once the crown prince stepped back, Lady Song forged commands and barred everyone from entering the palace to see Feng Ba. The crown prince, other princes, and officials could no longer reach him.

Hu Fu, who controlled palace security, was close to Feng Ba's brother Feng Hong. He told Feng Hong what Lady Song was doing.

Feng Hong entered the palace with armed men and removed Lady Song. Feng Ba, shocked on his sickbed, soon died.

Then Feng Hong's ambition appeared.

He forced Crown Prince Feng Yi to kill himself, took the throne, and slaughtered Feng Ba's sons, even infants.

Northern Yan's internal disorder immediately gave Tuoba Tao an opening.

Feng Hong Flees to Goguryeo

Tuoba Tao had just destroyed Xia. He sent tens of thousands of troops against Northern Yan.

Northern Yan was already weak, and Feng Hong's internal killings made it weaker. It could not hold for long.

Feng Hong first apologized to Northern Wei and offered to send his daughter into the Wei palace as a sign of submission.

Tuoba Tao agreed, but added a condition. A daughter was not enough. Crown Prince Feng Wangren also had to enter Wei service as a hostage.

Feng Hong refused.

Tuoba Tao saw that Feng Hong was still not frightened enough and continued the attack. Panic spread through Northern Yan. Feng Hong remembered Feng Ba's earlier relationship with Goguryeo and secretly asked for help.

Officials warned that Goguryeo had once depended on Northern Yan and might later turn toward Northern Wei. Feng Hong had no better choice.

King Gaolian of Goguryeo sent 10,000 soldiers to Helong. When they arrived, Feng Hong had them put on Northern Yan armor and handed Helong over to them. He then moved toward Goguryeo with treasure, palace women, and civilians.

The line of refugees stretched for more than eighty li, with crying along the road. Northern Wei did not pursue because it was wary of Goguryeo troops.

In Goguryeo, Gaolian received Feng Hong and sent envoys to Northern Wei to mediate. Tuoba Tao was angry but did not immediately chase him.

Feng Hong then behaved like a Heavenly King in exile. He scolded Gaolian and complained about food and treatment.

Even patience has a limit. Gaolian eventually sent men to kill Feng Hong and more than ten of his descendants.

Northern Yan ended.

Northern Wei's eastern obstacle was gone. Only Northern Liang remained in the west.

Northern Liang Outlives the Other Liangs

Liangzhou had already split into many states.

After Later Liang was absorbed by Later Qin, Southern Liang, Western Liang, and Northern Liang still remained. The one that survived was Northern Liang.

In 410, Juqu Mengxun led 30,000 troops against Southern Liang's capital Guzang. The Southern Liang ruler Tufa Rutan could not resist and moved his capital to Ledu.

After taking Guzang, Juqu Mengxun moved his own capital from Zhangye to Guzang and called himself King of Hexi.

Southern Liang did not finally fall to Northern Liang. In 414, Western Qin destroyed it. Once Southern Liang disappeared, Northern Liang turned against Western Liang.

While Li Gao lived, Western Liang could still barely compete with Juqu Mengxun. In 417, Li Gao died and his son Li Xin succeeded him.

Li Xin had barely taken power before declaring that he would destroy Northern Liang. He marched toward Guzang, but Juqu Mengxun ambushed him before he arrived. Li Xin was killed, and Western Liang lost both its ruler and Jiuquan, its capital.

Li Xin's younger brother Li Xun succeeded at Dunhuang.

Juqu Mengxun saw that Western Liang still had an heir and attacked Dunhuang. When Northern Liang troops arrived, they did not storm the city at once. Instead, they built embankments.

Li Xun thought they were only preparing for a long siege. Juqu Mengxun had judged that heavy rain was coming and ordered his soldiers to store water.

The rain came. Northern Liang used the water to flood Dunhuang. The city fell, Li Xun killed himself, and Western Liang ended.

With Western Liang gone, Northern Liang was the last survivor in Hexi.

Later stories linked branches of Li Xun's descendants to the Tang founder Li Yuan and even to the poet Li Bai. Such claims belong strongly to later genealogical tradition.

Waiting for Juqu Mengxun to Die

Northern Liang became one of the final surviving states of the Sixteen Kingdoms age.

Tuoba Tao wanted to destroy it, but he did not attack at once. He first sent envoys to Guzang to inspect the state. They reported that Juqu Mengxun had controlled Liangzhou for more than thirty years, was experienced and cunning, and was feared by both officials and common people.

But Juqu Mengxun was old, and his sons were ordinary. Better to wait until he died.

Tuoba Tao accepted the judgment and delayed.

In 433, Juqu Mengxun became seriously ill. He knew Northern Wei would watch Hexi after his death. He told his third son Juqu Mujian that he had promised to send a daughter into the Northern Wei palace and that the promise should be fulfilled after the funeral.

The next day, Juqu Mengxun died.

Juqu Mujian succeeded him and obeyed. He sent his sister to Northern Wei. Tuoba Tao was pleased, recognized him as King of Hexi, and granted nominal authority over Liang, Sha, and He provinces and the Western Regions.

Northern Liang sat on the Silk Road, and Northern Wei cared about it deeply. But Juqu Mujian was still a ruler in his own right. He could not truly be content as a Wei subordinate.

Northern Wei was strong, but Liu Song in the south was also powerful. Juqu Mujian sent envoys to Jiankang, hoping the Southern Dynasty could restrain Wei. Emperor Wen of Song was happy to recognize him as King of Hexi too.

Juqu Mujian now held recognition from both north and south. Tuoba Tao disliked this and married his own sister to him. Juqu Mujian made the Northern Wei princess his queen and sent good horses and gold.

On the surface, Northern Liang and Northern Wei were now tied by marriage.

Inside the court, trouble soon broke out.

The Princess Is Poisoned

Juqu Mujian later favored his sister-in-law Lady Li and had improper relations with one of his father's former consorts. The Northern Wei princess was neglected.

When the princess discovered this, she rebuked him. Juqu Mujian did not change. Lady Li, relying on his favor, put poison into the princess's food.

The princess survived but vomited severely.

When Tuoba Tao heard the news, he was furious and gathered ministers to discuss attacking Liang.

Juqu Mujian knew the situation was dangerous. He sent rich gifts to Northern Wei ministers, hoping they would speak for him.

Li Shun accepted many gifts and advised Tuoba Tao not to attack. He claimed the Guzang region had much stone and little water or grass. If Northern Liang removed the snow south of the city, Wei troops would die of thirst.

Li Shun had traveled to Liangzhou many times, so Tuoba Tao hesitated.

Then he told Cui Hao. Cui Hao was angry. He said the ministers must have accepted bribes. Historical records had long praised Liangzhou's livestock. If there were no water and pasture, where did the livestock come from?

Tuoba Tao found this convincing and decided to attack.

When Wei reached Guzang, it found abundant water, pasture, and products. Tuoba Tao rewarded Cui Hao and rebuked the ministers who had opposed the expedition.

Juqu Mujian had expected bribed officials to block the attack. When Wei appeared outside the city, he was unprepared.

He ordered ministers to bind him and went out to surrender.

Because he was Tuoba Tao's brother-in-law, he was treated with courtesy after being taken to Pingcheng.

In 439, Juqu Mujian surrendered to Northern Wei. Northern Wei took Hexi, and the long northern fragmentation was largely over.

Strictly speaking, Northern Liang had an afterlife. Juqu Mujian's brother Juqu Wuhui moved west to Gaochang near today's Turpan and continued a regime there. In 460, Rouran captured Gaochang and Northern Liang finally disappeared.

But in the usual Southern and Northern Dynasties narrative, 439 marks the beginning of the Northern Dynasties: Northern Wei had swallowed Hexi and unified the north.

The Tuoba clan had become the new master of northern China. It would not be content with the north forever.