The Northern Crisis After Western Jin

The War of the Eight Princes ended with Sima Yue, Prince of Donghai, standing on top.

But the Sima family's internal fighting had barely stopped when a larger disorder had already grown across the north.

The Situation After Emperor Huai Takes the Throne

After Sima Yue took power, Emperor Hui of Jin died. Sima Yue enthroned Sima Chi, the twenty-fifth son of Sima Yan. He became Emperor Huai of Jin and began the Yongjia reign.

Emperor Huai was at least more capable than Sima Zhong. On the surface, the court finally had an emperor who could understand affairs.

But Western Jin's foundations had already been hollowed out by the War of the Eight Princes. Royal princes had killed one another. Luoyang had been shaken again and again. Regional military commands had grown stronger. Refugees scattered. The center had to face outside threats while still being constrained by Sima Yue.

At the same time, new regimes appeared in the north and southwest. Later historians called the most influential sixteen of them the Sixteen Kingdoms. The older phrase "Five Barbarians" usually referred to Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang groups, though not every regime in the Sixteen Kingdoms was non-Han.

Cheng-Han Rises First in Shu

One of the earliest Sixteen Kingdoms regimes appeared in Shu, the Sichuan region.

In 304, while Western Jin princes were still fighting, many people had been displaced by war. Li Xiong, a Di leader, rose amid these refugees from Guanzhong and took Chengdu. He called himself King of Chengdu.

Two years later, Li Xiong took the imperial title and named his state Cheng.

Later, his cousin changed the state name to Han. For convenience, historians call the regime Cheng-Han.

Its appearance already showed that Western Jin could no longer control the local level effectively. But the force that pushed the northern situation further toward collapse was the Han state founded by the Xiongnu leader Liu Yuan.

Why Liu Yuan Called Himself King of Han

Also in 304, Liu Yuan, a Xiongnu noble, declared himself King of Han at Zuoguocheng and used Han as his state name.

He also honored Liu Shan, the last ruler of Shu Han, with a posthumous imperial title and offered sacrifices to emperors of the Han house beginning with Liu Bang. This was important. A Xiongnu noble had chosen the name "Han."

Liu Yuan's people came from the Southern Xiongnu. After Han-era marriage alliances, Xiongnu nobles could claim a political kinship narrative with the Liu imperial family. After the Southern Xiongnu submitted and settled inside Han territory, they also gradually absorbed Han Chinese language and political culture. By Liu Yuan's time, he could appeal both to Xiongnu followers and to the language of restoring Han legitimacy.

He chose the second path.

In Liu Yuan's view, Jin had usurped Wei, and Wei had usurped Han. Now that the Central Plain was in chaos, opposing Jin under the banner of Han succession was more useful than marching south only as a Xiongnu chieftain.

That is why he first called himself King of Han rather than emperor. Only in 308 did Liu Yuan formally take the imperial title.

Han Approaches the Yellow River

During the years between kingship and empire, Liu Yuan was not idle.

His Han armies captured Taiyuan and expanded their power. The realm now had roughly three zones: Cheng-Han in the southwest, the Xiongnu Han state in the north, and the remaining regions that the Western Jin court could still barely claim.

Emperor Huai wanted to break free from Sima Yue. He secretly built his own network, circulated criticism of Sima Yue, and tried to weaken the prince's prestige. Sima Yue struck back quickly. He killed more than ten officials close to the emperor and removed a group of men Emperor Huai had promoted.

One dismissed commander, Zhu Dan, defected to Liu Yuan. He told Liu Yuan about the conflict between Emperor Huai and Sima Yue.

Liu Yuan understood the opportunity. He ordered Liu Jing, Liu Cong, and other commanders to clear Jin positions north of the Yellow River.

Liu Jing advanced as far as Liyang but allowed his troops to kill and plunder, driving large numbers of people into the Yellow River. Liu Yuan was furious. He believed that anyone trying to win the realm had to win people first. Reckless killing would ruin the cause, so he demoted Liu Jing.

Meanwhile, Liu Cong attacked Huguan. Western Jin reinforcements came in haste and were too few to matter. They were defeated quickly. When the Shangdang governor saw that no larger relief force would arrive, he surrendered Huguan.

The shield north of the Yellow River began to come apart.

Defeat and Revenge at Hongnong

Liu Cong then moved south. Jin commanders along the way retreated toward Hongnong Commandery.

The Hongnong governor, Yuan Yan, knew direct resistance might fail, so he pretended to surrender. He sent word that the city was willing to submit and offered wine, meat, and dancing women.

Liu Cong was suspicious at first and camped outside the city to observe. But his soldiers had fought for days. When they saw food, wine, and music, they relaxed. Late at night, the dancers set fires in the camp, and Jin soldiers hidden nearby rushed in. Han forces fell into disorder.

Liu Cong was nearly trapped. Wang Mi arrived with troops and rescued him from the chaos.

When Liu Yuan heard of Liu Cong's defeat, he sent Liu Yao, Liu Jin, and others to support him. Liu Cong, Liu Yao, Liu Jin, and Wang Mi joined forces and crossed the Yellow River again to attack Hongnong. Liu Yao led from the front, climbed the wall, opened the gate, and killed Yuan Yan as he tried to flee.

After Hongnong fell, the gateway to Luoyang lay open.

The First Attacks on Luoyang Fail

Han forces soon approached Luoyang.

Luoyang was not an ordinary city. It backed against Mount Mang and was surrounded by defensive geography: the Yellow River, Hangu Pass, Hulao Pass, Yique, Xuanyuan Pass, and other barriers. It was an old capital with high walls and long preparation.

Liu Cong attacked for half a month but could not take it. Jin troops kept coming out in raids, and Han forces suffered repeated setbacks before withdrawing.

Later, Liu Cong tried again. He still failed.

From then on, taking Luoyang became something he could not let go.

Even though Liu Cong was blocked at Luoyang, Han did gain elsewhere. Another major commander, Shi Le, was building his own base in Hebei.

Shi Le Rises in Hebei

Shi Le was from the Jie people, and his life story was extraordinary.

During the War of the Eight Princes, Bingzhou suffered years of drought. Sima Teng, the inspector of Bingzhou, tried to raise money by ordering soldiers to capture non-Han people and sell them as slaves. Shi Le, then about twenty, was seized and became a farm slave.

He could not endure that life. He escaped with other slaves, gathered followers, and survived as a bandit by robbing travelers and merchants. Later his group grew into several hundred men.

When Shi Le joined Liu Yuan, Liu Yuan did not reject him because of his background. Instead, he valued him and ordered him to operate in Hebei with 30,000 soldiers.

Shi Le soon captured places such as Changshan. He changed his earlier bandit habits, imposed strict discipline, and avoided harming local people. Because he treated people relatively well, many joined him voluntarily, and his army grew to around 100,000.

Among those who came to him was Zhang Bin, a Han Chinese adviser. Zhang Bin saw that Shi Le had a chance to achieve something larger and chose to assist him. With Zhang Bin's help, Shi Le advanced more quickly, and much of Hebei gradually fell into Han's sphere.

The Succession After Liu Yuan's Death

In the eighth month of Yongjia's fourth year, Liu Yuan died. He never saw Luoyang taken.

His eldest son Liu He succeeded him. Liu He was suspicious and feared that his brothers, who held military power, would threaten him. While they were in the capital for mourning, he decided to kill all of them.

He sent forces in four directions against four brothers. One commander, Tian Mi, did not support Liu He and preferred Liu Cong. Tian Mi told Liu Cong's side what was happening, and Liu Cong immediately struck back.

Some of the brothers were killed, but Liu Cong entered the city. Liu He fled to Liu Yuan's spirit hall and begged for mercy. Liu Cong did not spare him. He killed Liu He there.

Officials then supported Liu Cong as the new ruler. After refusing several times in ritual fashion, Liu Cong accepted the throne and made Liu Yi, Prince of Beihai, his imperial younger brother and heir.

Once the political situation steadied, Liu Cong knew what he wanted to do first.

Luoyang was now in front of him.